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| | | How to become a safe pilot? 如何成為一個安全的飛行員? | | What are the common mistakes a pilot makes? 飛行常犯的錯誤有哪些 ? | | 註 | 本文有關引擎的敘述, 乃針對 Lycoming 及 Continantal 引擎而言, 對使用 Rotax引擎的朋友們, 請試著理解並揣摩大意, 未盡之處請多諒解. | | 1 | 1. Fuel contamination or starvation:
- Water contamination or ice contamination, extremely dangerous during take off.
- Running the fuel dry.
- Switch to an empty tank. Always switch to the fullest tank before landing. And be awared, after a long flight, the fuel is usually low, in some airplanes, if you slip the airplane in the wrong way, the engine may die, check your operator's manual.
- Fuel cap missing - it will siphon the fuel out and empty the tank very quickly, that's why, it's always a good
practice to leave the fuel selector on one side of the tank instead of both.
- Negative pressure on the fuel tank vent (happen to home built airplane a lot).
- Didn't set the mixture to full rich for take off (applies to high power airplanes, like Pitts S2-B requires full mixture take off, the fuel burn at full throttle is over 20 gal per hour).
- Mixture set too rich when take off at high elevation airport. it's very dangerous to take off with full rich at high densitivity altitude, not only it doen't put out full power but also floods the engine (?). | | | 1. 汽油中有污染 或 汽油到達不了引擎: - 起飛時汽油中有水: 起飛時汽油中有水是非常危險的, 這是起飛後引擎動力喪失的頭號兇手. 若溫度低於攝氏零度以下, 則要考慮油箱中可能有冰塊的問題. 不要假設水永遠都累積在油路最下方的 油水分離器 (Fuel strainer) 及 油箱下面的排洩閥 (Fuel tank sump drain), 水有可能滯留在油箱的平底處及凹陷處, 而下不到底端. - 汽油用完了: God bless you! - 選擇了錯誤的油箱: 每次下降時, 選擇最多汽油的油箱. 在一段長時間的飛行之後, 油箱的油位已低, 某些飛機當你下降側飛(slip) 的方向不對時 (Slip the wrong way), 汽油會下不了油路而造成引擎熄火. - 油箱蓋子掉了: 通常發生在加完油後忘了鎖回去或沒鎖好. 起飛後汽油會很快的被風抽掉, 故航行中每次只使用一邊的油箱, 可能是一個值得參考的做法, 但別忘了每一小時轉換油箱一次 (Fuel selector 放在左或右, 不放在 Both). 很多飛行的考量都是在防範萬一, 這是安全的飛行員應該持有的態度(起飛及下降建議放在雙邊或最滿油箱). - 油箱的通風孔位置或方向不對: 若油箱的通風孔(Fuel tank vent) 位置或方向不對, 飛行時會在通風口 (vent)上產生負壓, 造成汽油下不來而使引擎熄火. 這類的問題常發生在自製的飛機中 (Experimental Airplane). - 起飛時化油器 (Mixture control) 沒有設在 full rich (請參考你飛行手冊的建議): 當油門加到最大時, 可能因為空氣對汽油比差距太大 (too lean) 而造成熄火. 我所飛的 Pitts S2-B, 起飛時汽油的流量每小時高達二十加崙以上, 如果化油器的控制 (mixture control) 沒有放置在full rich 而把油門 (Throttle) 加到最大, 引擎可能會向你咳嗽, 而令你的心跳加速到兩百以上, 聽起來是不是很熟悉 ? - 高山機場起飛, 化油器 (Mixture control) 若放在 Full rich (汽油與空氣的混合濃度最高) 則可能是一個錯誤: 當你從高山上的機場起飛時 (high density altitude), 如果你的化油器放在 Full rich (汽油對空氣最濃的比例) 是非常危險的. 原因有二, 第 一, 引擎無法產生最大的馬力, 第二, 可能因為汽油的濃度太高而造成引擎熄火---Engine flooded (第二點有待查證). 在空氣稀薄的情況下(high density altitude), 每一匹馬力都是你的救命恩人(every horse power is your life saver). 有些人甚至將發電機關掉 (Alternator off), 為的是用引擎所有的動力, 全面的來驅動螺旋槳. 我就曾經這麼做過, 當時機場的 density altitude 高達 七千呎以上, 機場高度四千呎, 氣溫攝氏32度, 引擎的最高效率降到60% 以下 (at 22" maniford pressure), 每分鐘的爬升速度不到一百呎, 充分體會了另一個心跳加速的經驗. 如果稀薄的空氣密度(High Density Altitude) 不曾令您發毛心寒過的話, 您的飛行經驗尚有待考驗. | | 2 | 2. failure to pre-flight (do the pre-take off inspection), this is the only moment you can save yourself from a big trouble, find out if you have: - Water in the fuel. - Brake failure, fluid leak, caliper broken. One time I had right side brake locked up, can you imagine how dangerous it is if it happens during landing. - Weak tire, low air. One time the tailwheel had low air pressure, it blew the tire during touch down. - Fuel cap missing, fuel cap miss placed, check it every time you have the fuel tops off by some body. - Loose bolt, missing carter pin, missing inspection cover. - Leaking oil or low oil, fuel leaks, fuel contamination (water in fuel). - Control failure, I have heard a case, after went in for service, the mechinics accidently reversed the elevator control, the poor guy had to push the stick to take-off and flare, isn't that scary! | | | 2. 第二個通病是, 飛行前的安全檢查做得不徹底, 或是根本沒做. 飛行前的安全檢查能讓你快快樂樂的出門,平平安安的回家. 以下列舉數例以茲參考: - 檢查汽油中是否有水. - 檢查煞車, 煞車油, 煞車片, 有無鬆動, 煞車的Piston 是否sticky (會鎖住煞車), 有無漏油. 有一回我與兩位朋友飛往Oshkosh, 在 Taxi 時, 右側的煞車突然鎖住,剛換掉的名牌煞車系統, 尚且使用不到二十小時竟然出了問題. 如果此狀況發生在下降之時, 其後果簡直難以想像. - 檢查油箱蓋子, 檢查是否旋緊及旋正確了. 每一回別人為你加滿油後, 你必得親自再檢查一次, 絕對不能偷懶, 小小的一個油箱蓋可以讓整架飛機墜毀, 不可不慎. 失去了油箱蓋, 汽油會很快的因為負壓而被抽乾, 汽油乾涸可以在幾分鐘之內發生. - 檢查螺絲帽的方法不能只是靠目視, 必須用你的食指及母指去旋轉, 這是一位飛行的老手傳授給我的寶貴經驗, 他持有美國 A&P 執照 (Airframe and Power Plant mechanics), 曾遇到垂直舵(Rudder)螺絲帽看似正常卻是鬆動的例子, 從那時起, 他右手的兩根指頭就從未懈怠過. - 檢查機油量, 汽油量 (打開汽油蓋來目視, 不要完全相信儀表), 檢察汽油中是否有雜質, 水. 在美國如果看到顏色不對還得用鼻子聞聞, 曾出現過加油技工誤將噴射機柴油加到小飛機的例子, 結果造成引擎必須Overhaul. - 檢查所有的飛行控制與連結. 我曾經聽過一例, 在一次大修之後, 修理的技師誤將水平舵 (Elevator) 的控制鋼絲反接, 試飛的pilot 在起飛時險些墜毀. 勉強升空後又必須以反方向的操作來飛行及降落. 你可以想像降落時的驚險危急嗎 ? 這是一個不可能發生的真人真事, 令你我不得不審慎考量每一個可能發生的狀況 (尤其在大修之後或一百小時的"體檢"之後). 兩年前在 Long Beach 有一架特技飛機在一百小時的保養之後第一次試飛中墬毀在大海中, 人與飛機都沒找到. - 以下是與後三點飛機有關的例子: - 發生在紅色雙翼機 Pitts, 我於Taxi 時 S-Turn, 發現左轉極難掌控, 立刻放棄起飛, 返回機棚, 檢查時發現乃煞車油不足所致. 又有一回也是轉彎控制困難, 原因是尾輪一邊的彈簧太鬆所造成(Turn with rudder paddle). 於Taxi 時,做幾個S-Turns 是檢查煞車及尾舵方向控制的好方法. - 檢查輪胎有無明顯的磨損, 胎壓是否正常. 有一回飛行學校的 Decathlon 尾輪 (Tailwheel) 胎壓弱了些, 我特別提醒即將起飛的教練與他的學生, 該教練認為只有一小時的飛行應該不致於有問題, 結果他倆在回程降落時輪胎爆裂. 此事證實了一點, 決不能忽視任何一個不正常的狀況. ► "one of the stops in the tailwheel was broken and the tailwheel was locked 90 degrees, we ground looped, rolled a tire off the rim and bent the spring on the tailwheel". 所以絕對不能忽視Taxi 前的安全檢查. ► "I was taxi on the downwind, held the stick all the way back (the elevator were angled up instead of down), and the tail wind got under the elevators and picked the tail up when I steped on the bakes, the prop strike the ground" 這個例子告訴我們 Taxi 時控制桿位置的重要性. ► Trying too hard to make the first turnoff after landed, when the tailwheel went from latched to full-swivel. The airplane spun around. ► While taxiing at idle there is very little propwash/wind over the tail surface. With a light tail and aggressive braking she will tend to nose over every time....especially if the stick is not in your crotch and you are aggressive on the brakes. A quick burst of power with stick back and/or releasing some of the brake pressure should put her ass back on the ground...when taxiing downwind keep the stick forward anytime the wind is faster than you are (tape a 4" piece of yarn on the lift strut about 2.5 feet outboard of the fuselage to check wind direction). | | | | | 4 | 4. Failure to recognize engine problems during taxi, runup and in flight. - vapor lock (fuel injected engine). - RPM fluctuation, losing horse power (bad mags, bad spark plug, bad cylinder (broken valve), carb ice, high temp (EGT, CHT).... - it's a good habit to remove your headset to listen to the sound of the engine when you first start the engine. | | 引擎的問題很少是突發狀況, 多數是被長期的忽視所造成. 而且多數的問題都不只出現一個現象, 都是在一連串的反映之後才向你示威. 以下列舉幾個例子以供參考: .......(編輯中) | | 5 | 5. 用錯誤的方式修正... 譬如起跑後機頭與機身往左偏移, 結果你用手 (Aileron) 來更正, 而不是用腳來更正 (舵), 如果不是右側來風, 便是一個錯誤. 飛機往左偏的原因是 P-factor 及 slip stream, 必須用腳 (舵)來更正. | | 6 | 6. Skidding turn (especially traffic pattern--base to final), you put yourself at risk for stall/spin. | | | | 7 | 7. fatigue, distractions, emotional stress -- stay on the ground please. | | 7. 當你覺得疲勞, 心中有掛礙, 心情不好, 心理有壓力時 -- 請留在你愛人的身邊, 千萬不要展翅揚長而去. 飛行不是兒戲,疲憊及心情壓力對肢體的反應及飛行的控制與判斷, 有百分之一百的影響. | | 8 | 8. Not thinking (plan) ahead of time, skipping the check list. | | 8. 飛行與其它技術最大的不同點是, 凡事都得想在前頭, 你沒法在狀況發生時才做打算. 做為一個安全的飛行員, 應該在每次動作執行之前, 檢查以下的項目... Take off -- CIGAR: C: control 控制系統 起飛前 雪茄 I: instrument (Heading indicator, altimeter, transponder on Alt) 儀表板 (羅盤, 高度計...) G: Gas (switch to both or the fullest tank) 油箱選擇 A: Attitude (elevator trim) 姿態 (預設Trim 水平舵) R: Runup 起飛前引擎, 點火 (magnitos), 槳 (propeller), 熱風轉換 (carb heat), Idle 測試. 起飛前你一定要確定每一個開關的功能都存在, 最簡單的方式就是去試它, 有些是在引擎起動前試的(先別戴上耳機), 譬如說 汽油幫浦(Fuel Pump), 打開後會聽到馬達的聲音(若每一邊翅膀有兩個油箱的話). 若是與 Gyro 有關的儀表, 當起動時會聽到Gyro 高速旋轉的聲音. 用耳朵來判斷它的功能是否存在. 有些是可以從電流表看出是否有功能, 例如發電機 (Alternator). 當起動引擎時, 先聽聽引擎的聲音是否正常, 然後再戴上耳機. 諸如此類簡單的測試, 可以讓你免除不必要的麻煩. Hold short 拍電影: Light 燈光 (landing light, strobes) 起降大燈, 閃光燈 上跑道前的 Camera 攝影機 (look for traffic in the pattern, the nose should point to the final apporach) 三個動作 進入跑道之前, 機頭應該四十五度面向下降的方向, 看清楚是否有飛機正在降落 Action 開始拍攝 (transponder to Altitude) 將Transponder 放在 "高度" Landing -- GUMPS: G: gas, select the fullest tank 選擇最滿的油箱 下降前的檢查項目 U: Under carriage (retractable landing gear) 放下起落架 M: Mixture rich 化油器控制向前推到底 Full rich (或依據手冊的建議) 一部很有名的電影 P: Constant speed Propeller, set to fine pitch. 可變螺旋槳向前推到底, 最細的角度 (最高轉速) "The Forest Gump" S: Switches (landing light, electric fuel pump. Check your operator's manual, some require the fuel pump to be on, some don't). 開關: 燈, 汽油幫浦 (請參考你的飛行手冊) Post take off: Flaps up 收回副翼 起飛後的動作 25x25 (at 1000 feet, 25 inch of maniford pressure and 2500 RPM) 25 吋進氣壓, 引擎2500 轉. Fuel pump off, landing light off. 關掉汽油電子幫浦(參考手冊) 及 起落燈. |
| | Part II | | 9 | 9. Fly the pattern altitude. Regular pattern altitude is 1000 feet AGL, you should maintain within +/- 50 feet. Why flying pattern altitude ? it's easier for every body to see each other, Airport is the deadest airspace among the all. | | 9. 另一個常見的錯誤是, 進出機場時, 不遵守遊戲規則. 一般機場的進出高度是一千呎, 你應該保持在上下五十呎的高度 以內, 保持相同高度的最主要目地是, 讓彼此容易看到對方. 機場是所有飛行區域中最危險的地方. | | 10 | 10. Enter airport pattern at 45 degree entry, never straight in, and always announce your position and intention. If we all follow the same rule, then there will be fewer mid-air in the pattern. | | 10. 進入機場空域時, 必須以四十五度斜角切入, 不要直直進入 (straight in), 除非是警急情況 (譬如尿急...Ha! I did it once). 並請在無線電上通告你的位置,企圖與高度. 如果每一個人都遵守這樣的遊戲規則, 空中相撞的意外事件便可避免. 維護這一片美麗的天空是我們共同的責任. | | 對一般人來說, 天空是他們的極限, 但對咱們飛行員來說, 天空是我們的家. If a pilot is tired of flying, he is tired of living. To most people, sky is the limit, but to pilot, sky is their home. | | 11 | 11. Not looking for traffic in the pattern, turn on your landing light and strobes (navigation lgihts) in the pattern so people can see you. | | 11. 進出機場另一個重要的態度是, 要有如履深淵 如履薄冰 如臨戰場的心情, 四面八方的掃瞄, 並且記得打開你的大燈及閃光燈 (航行燈), 讓別人容易看到你. | | 12. VFR flight to IFR condition. Clouds, fog, haze .... The difference between cloud and fog is one with a ceiling, the other doesn't. They both appear when the temperture and dew point meets. So flying after sunset, the temperture drops, it has more chance for the fog to form. At sunrise, the temperature rises, the cloud/fog normally burns off. Never fly on top of clouds if you are a VFR pilot, always turn around when the fog/clouds is coming at you, make your go and no-go decision on the ground based on the weather, based on your physical and mindful condition. | | | | 13 | 13. Taxi too fast. If the tire blew and brake fail, you will be turning into the ditch or ran into the hangar, I guarantee it. when there is a strong x-wind, the nose has tendency veer to the wind, taxi at moderate or slow speed, taxi too fast will have less time to react if the nose starts weathervaning into the wind. Have you ever let go of all control and see how the x-wind weathervaning the airplane? | | | | 14 | 14. Add full power to go-around, it's a deadly mistake if you fly with a high power motor (like PItts S2-B with 265 hp). When add the full power to go around, always watch the pitch attitude, don't allow it to stall (high AOA). If you are slow and near stall attitude, adding the full power on pitts will cause a snap roll, making a snap roll one foot over the ground. This is what I found in the NTSB report (NTSB Identification: NYC84LA050): "The Citabria pilot attempt to restart the engine in a near stall attitude, the engine fired and went to high RPM torque, rolling the aircraft to the left..."I've logged more than 50 hours on the type a aircraft "Citabria", this one has a 0-320 engine (150 hp or 160 hp), the rolling motion he discribed is a snap roll. So, it could happen to any aircraft when these two condition meets --- High AOA --> idle to full power. | | | | | 15 | 15. Lack of X-wind landing skill. | | | | 16 | 16. Fail to look at the wind sock or verify the wind direction before landing. | | | | 17 | 17. Relax too early during take off and climb out, you never relax yourself before reaching 1000 feet AGL, and always climb out with Vx (best angle of climb). | | 18 | 18. Stretch the glide with pitch. If you have the habit stretching the glide or climb with pitch, you will kill yourslef very soon. Always use power to extend the glide or climb. |
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